前言:一篇好文章的诞生,需要你不断地搜集资料、整理思路,本站小编为你收集了丰富的浪漫主义文学论文主题范文,仅供参考,欢迎阅读并收藏。
[关键词]浪漫主义小说 死亡主题 复归 自然 悲剧
浪漫主义[romanticism]是西方文化的“舶来品”。在浪漫主义的叙事中有三个明显的特征:“主观性”、“复归过去”和“回到自然”。在中国传统文学受西方浪漫主义影响的前提下,中国文化传统和作家的写作的情态以“死亡”来惊醒价值判断。在中国现代文学的叙事中,浪漫的“复归”是这个时期大多数作家的写作心声和创作理想。
一、“主观性抒情”与“个性化色彩”
综观20世纪中国现代小说中浪漫主义的表征,首先表现为“主观性抒情”和“个性化色彩”的浪漫叙事理想。“主观性抒情”是浪漫主义者主张表现自己的主观体验,抒发内心情怀,它不在乎外在力量的影响,有较大程度的“私人化”特征。这一特征不仅在西方浪漫主义作家中表现突出,在中国五四作家,如创造社作家郁达夫、郭沫若,创造社“小伙计”作家周全平、叶灵凤、倪贻德,新月社诗人徐志摩、闻一多、朱湘等人的文学文本中都不突出的体现,可以说,现代文学30年是浪漫主义文学真正自觉的时代。在此基础上引起的“个性化色彩”叙事体现了浪漫主义的原初意义:以人为本,张扬人的价值和意义,反对基督教神学,达到人性的最大解放,而其实质是“个人主义”。受其影响,20世纪中国文学中曾出现过不同时期的浪漫主义表征,五四时期创造社、新月社、湖畔诗社的作家和诗人在为人和为文上都带有鲜明的浪漫主义色彩。鲁迅的文学活动中也显示了强烈的个性主义精神。《摩罗诗力说》不仅介绍西方浪漫主义作家作品,还展露了鲁迅的浪漫主义理想,他讴歌的“撒旦派”诗人拜伦、雪莱等人就是浪漫主义者,他的散文诗集《野草》在写作方法上就体现出浪漫主义与现代主义的创作方法。20世纪20年代的浪漫主义作家受到欧洲前浪漫主义者卢梭的“返归自然”思想和斯宾诺莎等人的“泛神论”影响,以自然为宣泄对象,通过对自然的歌颂,表达对神的否定和对自然力、对人性的肯定。回顾中国现代作家的创作,这一特征十分突出,郭沫若、郁达夫以及废名、艾芜等人的作品都具有典型的“个性化”的艺术旨趣。
二、“复归过去”与“个体生命体验”
在现代文学的创作中,作家创作时既接受外来文学形式和思潮影响,又真实地再现个体生命体验的文学模式,即在“复归过去”的过程中,寻求“个体的生命体验”。这一点,郁达夫小说的创作实践具有典型性:第一,在接受视野上,郁达夫在创作中接学了西方文学、哲学思想,如提倡卢梭的“回归自然”的思想,肯定劳伦斯小说的风格和钦佩屠格涅夫小说对“多余人”的刻画,以及对日本“私小说”表现方法的吸收与借鉴等。第二,在个体生命的表现与书写上,郁达夫大胆地展示自己的留日生活、回国后的生活,其中,对狎妓于青楼的过程、颓废的精神、悲观厌世的情绪都作了真实的外露。这一写作模式在中国现代小说史上是具有开创性的,这对创造社的作家叶鼎洛、倪贻德等人影响很大,也对非创造社作家王以仁、冯沅君等人有着强烈的榜样作用。可以说,郁达夫的小说创作从身体到精神的模仿,是一种毫无掩饰的、彻底的模仿。从这个意义上看,属于这一模仿类型的小说是写于1927年以前的作品,作品都以20世纪20年代前后中国的社会生活为背景,写出了时代青年、知识分子的忧国忧民之情,写出了他们对贫富悬殊的不满和对生命力受压制呐喊,作品中的诸多情节替“死亡”来展示,主人公的死往往具有一种“复归自然”的文学人生理想。而小说中所悬置的“死亡”问题,正是把人们的注意力引向现世的生存,悲剧死亡的结局恰恰是对现世生存的复归;主体生存意识的幻灭,孤独、空虚、飘零、颓废、变态的也是个体特有的生命体验,在“沉默中灭亡”的悲剧也是“五四”时期许多浪漫青年的社会归宿。作者的创作主题的最终目的由此传达出来,即由个人的死亡推及到时代的死亡。
三、“情感的回归”与“自然的叙事格调”
浪漫主义将“死亡”定义为理想境界里的“复归”不仅仅是一种情感的欲求和回归,更是一种唯美自然的叙事格调;而其叙事规则也表现为一种“回归自然”原则。小说《边城》演绎的是一次唯美之死,展现的是作者清新浪漫的死亡理想,同样是一种诗意境界的“复归”。沈从文作为自觉的叙述者、歌者,一方面使他在跻身都市生活里自觉地以“乡下人”的目光和评判尺度来看待中国的都市文明,表现人性最真切的欲望;另一方面追求人性的自然张扬以及强健生命力的健康发展。沈从文执著于“人性追求”,强调生命力的张扬,歌颂古老人性的健康淳朴,叹惋现代文明入侵下的人性变异;在宣扬“人性复归”的同时,也将“死亡”作为“人性复归”理想的实现,这在一定程度上表现了他独特的地域的、民族的文化历史态度,也是他在城乡对峙的整体结构中批判文明在进入中国的初始阶段的丑陋的创作理想。《边城》叙写了一个悲剧,小说中似是而非的“死亡结局”是极具浪漫主义色彩的,恰恰表现了沈从文对“湘西”的未来无法预知的困惑与现实冲击理想的矛盾,表现了创作主体在理想境界里的期许和限度,但作品的叙述并不给人奇崛的震撼或特别的悲郁,在作者诗意和抒情的笔端,生、死、聚、散,一切都是那么自然。在这里道家的“天人合一”以及“回归自然”的思想得到了一种完美体现。而“死亡”在这里被演绎成一种那种简朴、原始、悠远的感觉;现代化社会发展进程的必然使生命的更迭成为不可回避的现实,在渴望人类朴素文明与排斥现代“文明”的冲突中,创作主体营造了“不悖乎人性的人生形式”的死亡道德的“乌托邦”,流露出对工业文明污染后的现代社会的失望与“情感的回归”的价值模式。
参考文献:
There are many domains research about romanticism. Whereas, the research about British positive romanticism is little. The positive romanticism has its remarkable characteristics in the various countries. The English positive romanticism pushed the romanticism literature to the high tide. Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind is one of the best works of positive romanticism of Britain. This thesis mainly analyzes the background of Ode to the West Wind, and the features of positive romanticism. This thesis appreciates Ode to the West Wind in various ways by analyzing the subjectivism, the political lyricism, idealism. This thesis also illustrates the features of human being admiration for nature. Both the style of this poem and the writing ways of the poem express the British positive romanticism characteristics vividly.
Key Words
Ode to the West Wind; British; positive romanticism
摘 要
文学的研究有很多领域,对浪漫主义的研究也有很多,但是把积极浪漫主义独立起来研究却很少。积极浪漫主义的特征在各国国家都有其显著的鲜明的特征。在英国积极浪漫主义诗人用积极浪漫主义文学把浪漫主义文学推到了。雪莱的《西风颂》是英国积极浪漫主义的优秀作品,该论文通过对《西风颂》创作背景及积极浪漫主义的定义分析;及对该诗歌特征的赏析,充分地展现了积极浪漫主义主观性、政治抒情性、理想性。该论文也表现了崇尚自然热爱自然等特点。又从诗歌的创作风格、写作方法等特征都把英国乃至整个欧洲的积极浪漫主义的特征表现的淋淋尽至。
关键词
西风颂; 英国; 积极浪漫主义;
Introduction
The romanticism is often regarded as an important branch of literature. It completely manifested the social characteristic of British at that fixed period, and expressed the society's request through literature. Therefore, the close relation between literature and society was fully displayed.
The romanticism developed extremely fast in British. The essence of romanticism reflected present situation and the needs of society. Moreover, positive romanticism in Britain has manifested the different of positive romanticism characteristic. Therefore, the positive romanticism also reflected the culture of British in 19th century.
Poetry is an effective way to express positive romanticism. In order to better understand the positive romanticism, it is necessary to realize the superficial meaning and the deep meaning that the poetry express. Ode to the West Wind as one of the famous work of the English positive romanticism at that fixed period, it manifest the English positive romanticism in various kinds of ways. It can be found that Ode to the West Wind is concluded with triumphant and hopeful mind. This poem has a deep influence on his generation and almost changed the value of his people.
I. The Definition of Romanticism and Positive Romanticism
At the early 19th century, pan-European movement took place in art and philosophy. The term derives from the Romances of the Middle Ages, and it refers to the idealization of reality. In the late 18th century, it began to mean anti-Classicalism and it also represented a trend towards the picturesque and the Gothic, nostalgia, mystery and dramatic love .e.g. Walpole, Beckford and Fuseli. By the early 19th century, it had been broadened in many aspects, such as enthusiasm, the rediscovery of the artist as a supremely inpidual creator, the development of nationalistic pride, and the exaltation of the senses and emotions over reason and intellect. In addition, romanticism is a philosophical revolt against rationalism and intellect. This breadth of meaning has led to the definition of Romanticism as a 'feeling' and very little else.
In Britain, the term refers to his literary and artistic movement of the late 18th and early 19th century. Romanticism rejected the earlier philosophy of the Enlightenment, which stressed that logic and reason were the best response human had in the face of cruelty, stupidity, superstition, and barbarism. Instead, the romantics asserted that reliance upon emotion and natural passions provided romantic movement typically asserts the unique nature of the inpidual, the privileged status of imagination and fancy, the value of spontaneity over “artifice” and “convention,” the human need for emotional outlets, the rejection of civilized corruption, and a desire to return to natural primitivism and escape the spiritual destruction of urban life. Their writings are often set in rural or Gothic settings and they show an obsessive concern with “innocent” characters-children, young lovers, and animals. The major romantic poets included William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Gordon Byron.
Artistic and intellectual movement that originated in the late 18th century and stressed strong emotion, imagination, freedom from classical correctness in art forms, and rebellion against social conventions. Romanticism, attitude or intellectual orientation that characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in Western civilization over a period from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. Romanticism can be regard as a rejection of the precepts of order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality that typified Classicism in general and late 18th-century Neoclassicism in particular. To some extent, it is also reaction against the Enlightenment and against 18th-century rationalism and physical materialism in general. Romanticism emphasizes the inpidual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and so on.
Compared with passive romanticism, positive romanticism strengthens the will of men, and arouses the rebellion against reality and any else. Positive romanticism is that celebrated the power of inpidual self to create a world or to raise its particular conditions.
II. The Background of Romanticism and Positive Romanticism
Romanticism was one of the trends of literary and artistic thought, produces with the 18th century, at the beginning of 19 centuries Europe bourgeois revolution time.
In 18th century France's Enlightenment idealism advocated freedom of thought, emancipation of man's inpidual character and returning to the nature, and requested breaking royal power. In 19th century romanticism movements was started in European.
In the 19th century Europe various countries labor movement and the revolutionary movements are blustery. The working class in England strived for their own rights to subsistence, the same bourgeoisie launches the heroic struggle, took of a literature performance real life important methods, it with the time revolution mood associated production revolution literature, the revolutionary literature and the romanticism union has formed the positive romanticism. Byron and Shelley are representatives for British positive romanticism.
III.The Background of Shelley and Ode to the West Wind
A. The Background of Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792—1822), England’s greatest lyric poet, came from a family of some importance and power. His father was Sussex county gentleman and a Whig Member of Parliament; his grand-farther, who became a baronet, had amassed a great fortune. Shelley, the oldest son, accordingly grew up with the prospect of becoming a man of wealth and title. At Eton, he proved a good classical scholar, but was not very happy, for he was by nature revolutionary and unconventional. He was known as “mad shelly” and astronomy, and the exciting experiments he conducted, gave rise to many stories. The persecutions which he endured and witnessed at school gave him a lifelong detestation of tyranny and violence.
Shelley went to Oxford full of plans and ideas for changing the system of society. Being convinced that religious faiths were harmful to man’s happiness, he and his friend T.J.HoggH put forth a small study in logic, called the Necessity of Altheism, which was objected by the Oxford authorities , however, shelly and Hogg declined to discuss the matter. As a result they were sent off. It was a disaster for a boy at 18, for he lost a valuable education at Oxford. He fell out with his father and became a wan-darer. Though he would eventually inherit a fortune, he had no ready money. When he was 19, he eloped with Harriet Westbrook, a girl of 16 whom he scarcely knew. From Then on, shelly, always full of schemes, went on a quixotic expedition to redress the wrongs of the Irish; from Lyn mouth shortly afterwards he distributed a seditious pamphlet called the rights of man, scattering some copies by balloon and putting others into bottles and throwing them into the sea. In 1813 he printed and published extraordinary poem, Queen Mab privately which expressed his belief in a new golden age.
In his glorification of revolutionary ideas, Shelley had sought out William Godwin, author of political justice, who had married Mary Wollstonecraft, author of The Rights of Women. His marriage with Harriet proved a complete failure; Shelly eloped with Godwin’s 15-year-old daughter Mary. But that year Harriet was found drowned in the serpentine and her two children by shelly became the subject of a lawsuit. For Shelley, he was not only deeply shocked by the tragedy but also suffered the bitterness of losing his children. However, the life had to go on. To get rid of solitude, he married Mary Godwin later at Marlow, on the Thames. There, in 1816, he wrote Ablator, or the Spirit of Solitude, the first long poem to show his true genius. Next year he wrote a long imaginative poem on liberty and love, the Revolt of Islam, which contained many fine passages of description and narrative and was inspired by the French Revolution.
At that time, Shelly had become a friend of Leigh Hunt and Peacock and had met Keats. Finally in 1818, to escape prejudice and insult, and also Godwin’s constant demands for money, Shelley decided to seek peace in Italy. There shelly gave up his dream of reforming the world by the means of direct political action and decided to pass on his inspiration to others through his poetry. In this belief he composed his Prometheus Unbound, enjoyed for its incomparable music, its color and story, as well as because it contained Shelly’s noblest ideas. To this period, too, he wrote his Lines in the Eugenia Hills and Julian and Maddalo, an autobiographical poem based on a happy visit to Byron in VeniceH. Meanwhile Shelly wrote his finest lyric, such as the Cloud, the Skylark, the Ode to the West Wind and so on. The music and intensity showed that Shelly was entering on a new stage of personal and imaginative greatness.
B. The Background of Ode to the West Wind
The poem was composed in 1819 when European labor movement and the revolutionary movement surged. To fight for their right, British working class began to struggle with the bourgeoisie. At August of that year, 80,000 workers in Manchester held a massive demonstration. Of course, the reactionary authorities had dispatched troops to suppress. That was well-known as the Bideilei Massacre. For Shelley was in favor of British revolution, he was expelled from the United Kingdom. Then he came to Italy, he met Keats, had made great influence to Shelley a lot on revolutionary cause. Form the above; we can see that in Britain there was no freedom.
Ode to the West Wind is the most representative of Shelley’s feelings and thoughts at that time. It is a mixture of death and rebirth. Shelley is concerned with the regeneration of himself spiritually and poetically and of Europe politically. In the first three stanzas, the dynamic force of the west wind is manifested in its power on the land, in the air, and in the sea in different seasons. It is the destroyer and preserver. It will destroy the old world and herald in a new one. In the fourth stanza Shelley wishes that he were a leaf, a cloud, and a wave, so that he could feel the power of the west wind; but he is aware of his age and his sufferings in life, which have bent him down. Finally, he appeals to the wind, the wind of aspiration and change, to reinvigorate him and to give force and persuasiveness to his poetry.
IV. The Features of Positive Romanticism in Ode to the West Wind
A. Enthusiasm
The romanticism has two big branches which are the negative romanticism and the positive romanticism. To a certain extent the positive romanticism has its positive characteristic as the name suggests.
The positive romanticism mostly manifests in the positive romanticism poet dares to face the reality, critique society's darkness, is spearheaded at the feudal aristocracy, opposed in the capitalist society survives the feudal factor, simultaneously all sorts of evil phenomenon which creates to bourgeoisie itself also has the exposition, thus the fill revolt, the fight fervor, will send ideally in the future, will yearn for the new happy life. In this poem, Shelley wants to create a new free country. He talks of the “Mediterranean” and the “summer dream”. In the dream, the reader finds the sea lying “Beside a pumice isle in baize’s bay quivering within the waves’ in tenser day”. Shelley implants the ideas of volcano with the word “pumice.” The “old palaces and tower” stir vivid image of ancient Rome and Greece in readers mind. Shelley also uses these images in the sea’s dream to show that the natural world and the human social and political world are parallel.
B. Subjectivism
In the poem the west wind is not merely the wind of the nature, the subject which is the counter-capitalism counter-old influence, instead of regarding poetry as “a minor to nature” the source of which is in the outer world, romantic poets describe poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful felling” which express the poets mind.
In Ode to the West Wind, Percy Bysshe Shelley tries to gain transcendence, for he shows his thoughts, like the "winged seeds" trapped. The west wind acts as a driving force for change and rejuvenation in the human and natural world. Shelley views winter not just as last phase of vegetation but as the last phase of life in the inpidual, the imagination, civilization and religion. Shelley looks forward to freedom. From this “winged seeds” it presents image of flying and freedom. The important word is “seeds” for it which shows that even in death, new life will grow out of “grave” the phrase “winged seeds” also brings images of religions, angels or souls which can create new life continuously.
Heavenly images are confirmed by his use of the word “azure” which is also defined besides the meaning of blue sky, In Webster’s dictionary, as an “unclouded vault of the heaven”, the word “azure” is connected with the word “spring”, and it helps show Shelley’s view of rejuvenation. In addition, the word “spring” also means to rise up except being a literary metaphor for rebirth. In line nine, Shelley uses soft sounding phrases to communicate the blowing of the wind, this tierce cuts as an introduction and foreshadow of what is to come later. Shelley goes on to talk of the wind as a “destroyer and preserver”. The wind is also a person that to create freedom. Form this we can see that “wind” is a power which can destroy the old day and create new life. Therefore, Ode to the West Wind is a song of revolution at that time.
C. Idealism and Imagination
Just like Gorky pointed out “the romanticism is one mood, it complex moreover throughout how many fuzzily reflected actually is covering transition time society's all feelings and the mood color, but, its main key is to new thing anticipation”. The romanticism refers to the appearance according to the people, through the life phenomenon idealization description, and them displays certain social psychology and the emotion creation method. The romanticism ideal displays in the character image mold are the romanticism which is based on the basis of the idealized principle, through the unreal plot, in a special environment, exerts oneself in the description ideal the character image. These characters often have the unusual super human's moral character, ability and the behavior. The positive also inherit this feature.
转贴于 In this poem we can see that Shelley wants to establish a new free society. “drive my dead thoughts over the incantation of this verse; like wither,d leaves to quicken a new birth”, and “if winter comes, can spring be far behind”. It is obvious that Shelley is looking forward to new thoughts and new society.
On behalf of the positive of romantic, Shelly can’t see the future of socialism, but he also can't escape the circle of ideal socialism. It makes another feature of positive of romantic idealism. Does the poet describe what they will create in this poem?
D. Political Tendentiousness
Judging from the background of the positive romanticism, the positive romanticism must have certain characteristic belonged to that era. Political tendentiousness is the positive romanticism to that time reflection and the portrayal.
From Ode to the West Wind we can feel the intense of political tendentiousness, the west wind is “destroyer and preserver”, the west wind Cleans these which “yellow, and black and pale, and hectic red” Heartless. The west wind “thou on whose stream , mid the steep shy,s commotion”. The west wind is not the nature wind. It is the revolution wind, the wind against bourgeoisie, and against the power of Feudal.
E. Emotion and Nature
The romanticism poet's poetry mostly originates from the nature. Nature for the romanticists comes to the forefront of the poetic imagination. Nature is not only the major source of poetic imagery, but provides the dominant subject matter. Wordsworth conceives of nature as “the nurse, the guide and guardian of my heart and soul.” Nature to the romanticists is a source of cleanliness and spiritual understanding; it is a teacher; it is the stepping-stone between man and god, so romantic poets mostly take describing the nature to eulogize the nature as the subject. The positive romanticism poet has not discarded this characteristic.
According to Shelley said “the idea of writing this first poem is basically. In Florence Arnoux river bank woods, same day the temperature is genial, fresh, but this storm is gathering the moisture, under the incline the autumn rain”. From this the poet has felt the wild westerly wind, and life of the fall breath. Then the poet wrote westerly wind only because of this real, and the magnificent sight.
From the poem it is can be seen that Shelley was eulogy the west wind, but he was not just a singers, he Represents taking the westerly wind as the topic, taking the subject in the nature, and this is full of the fervor the poetic composition, selects a scene in this is naturally the romanticism universal characteristic also is the positive romanticism characteristic, does obeisance? Wordsworth sends the poet in a big way for representative's lakeside always describes the nature .in this poem Shelley described the change of the fall. The poet creates originating from the Italian Florence's suburb. Is precisely because the poet is good at observing the nature, only then had this classical poetry.
The romanticism writers all advocate the nature. Is naturally they express the feelings the nature carry. The romanticism work is often expressed the feelings, and author’s emotion pouring out swiftly with reveals. The positive romanticism is more radical, therefore the sentiment expresses intensely. Shelley has also displayed this characteristic in Ode to the West Wind. This poem starts from the eulogy westerly wind, in fourth Stanza “if I were a dead level thou mightiest bear; if I were a swift cloud to fly with thee” The poet compares oneself to others by the westerly wind. The poet expressed the poet the deep love and yearned for the nature through the westerly wind. He used the westerly wind to urge on oneself, expressed the free pursuit, with the hope to establish happy world.
F. Syncretism with Other Art
Form this poem, it can be found that very strange rhyme, because Shelley use the tetrza rima. It is a three line unit a tercet .rhyming a b a, the “b” rhyme is carried into next tercet ,b c b ,each stanzas has four tercets of interlocking rhyme and ends in a couplet using the middle rhyme of the last tercet. Thus the rhyme schemes are a b a, c d c, d e d and go on. It makes the rhyme very cheerful, and it also enables the poem and has the very strong rhythm, and highlight the musicality. It is just the same as Dante's Divine Comedy. From this poem, it also can be found that the beauty of music from the west wind, “make thy lyre, even as the forest is”. The Aeolian harp gives musical sounds as the wind blows through it. Here the forest is compared to the Aeolian harp lyre, and the poet prays that he also maybe the Aeolian harp so that he could feel the power of the west wind. It makes the sound of west wind more vivid and makes the poem more musical.
G. The Writing Style
The writing style of the poem efficiently reflects the features of positive romanticism.
a. The Free Writing Style
There are differences between writing techniques of romanticism and literature before it. In style, the romantic poets are prefer to boldness over the preceding age’s desire for restraint, maximum suggestiveness over the neoclassical ideal of clarity, free experimentation over the “rules” of composition, genre, and decorum, and they promoted the conception of the artist as “inspired” creator over that classicism literature which sticks to old ways equally, constrains the inpiduality, and it isn’t like the realism literature same language to encourage sharply, but is pursues the inpiduality liberation creation absolutely free, the poetry aspect is not tracking down traditional the form. Displays in the romanticism literature creation many and varied creation style.
First, romanticism is good at using the technique of exaggerating symbol. It also likes utilizing the magnificent literary flourishes, in the work fills the vivid rich analogy, causes beautiful and ugly, friendly and forms the sharp contrast and the striking comparison wickedly. The positive romanticism has completely inherited these characteristics of romanticism, and the language even more encourages.
In 19th, many poets like writing poem. Poem is the best choice for many positive romantic poets. For example,the most famous work of Byron is Don Juan, the most famous poem of Keats is Ode to a Nightingale. Because poem can express their feelings and it is one kind of art language, the poem is one kind of art which is to the soul and to the exploration. The poem can express the inner soul. It can make the distance between the human and the poetry closer. It also can form the sympathetic chord, and reach the effect of beautiful enjoyment. The poem is one kind of creativity. It does not stop using the language to create inner world. As the energetic movement, it is the way to liberate inner feelings, so it indicates another world. The poem is supposed to be revolutionary and timeliness. Sometimes it is mind record, which is based on the background of time. The poem is in the form of rhythmic, so the artistic effect is very obvious. All of these are expressed by the positive poets.
b. The Feature of the Poem’s Words
Romanticism is different from the realism and other literature, the words of romantic literature are very flowery, which is the as the positive romanticism. From this poem we also can get the feature. In this poem the feature of the language gorgeous mainly displays in the strong sentimental color and the bright demeanor. For example, when the poet writes the leaves, he uses the “Yellow, black, pale, hectic red”, and when he writes the wind there are many places using the word “hear”, which express that many time the poet wants to make the hearing and the vision unify to make the word more vivid.
The words of this poem’ express intense Summons, for example, “Pestilence-stricken multitudes, with living hues and odors plain and hill, of the horizon to the zenith's height, like writher’s leaves to quicken a new birth. If Winter comes, can spring be far behind?”
H. Rhetoric Device
a. Hyperbole
In this poem, Shelley used many hyperboles. Hyperbole in other words is exaggeration. It puts a picture into the readers mind. Hyperbole is frequently used in humorous writings. Hyperbole is common in humorous poetry, because it can make a point in a light-hearted way. It can be used to poke fun at someone or something. In this poem the hyperbole is used clearly; poet’s thoughts change very fast. Sometimes it maybe in the sky, but sometimes it is in the Mediterranean.
b. The Symbol Device
In the romantic poets view the symbol is aesthetic correlatives of nature’s emblematic language. There are great values because they could simultaneously suggest many tings, and they are regard as being superior to the one –to –one communications of allegory. Partly, it may have been the desire to express the “inexpressible” the infinite through the available resources of language that led to symbol at one level and myth (as symbolic narrative) at another. "Ode to the West Wind" used the symbol device, the entire first poem surrounds the autumn westerly wind to write an essay from the beginning to end, regardless of is describes the scenery or expresses feelings, all has not been separated from this specific description object, has not used political terminology and revolutionizes the slogan. However read after this short poem, we deep deeply feel actually, Shelley in sings the westerly wind, is incompletely sings the westerly wind, in the poet essence is through sings the westerly wind to sing to revolutionize. In poem westerly wind, remnant leaf, seed, class cloud, rainstorm thunder and lightning, sea mighty waves, seabed colored tree and so on, all is the symbolic things, they are containing the profound implication, the moving scenery which the nature wind and cloud surges, is the world vigorous development revolutionary struggle symbolic reflection.
Conclusion
The romanticism has two aspects. There are positive romanticism and the negative romanticism. Literature has regional characteristic, so positive romanticism in British has their own characteristic. The romanticism asserted that reliance upon emotion and love and passions for nature provided a valid and powerful means of knowing and a reliable guidance to ethics and living.
The Ode to the West Wind took the world literature, and it has manifested many characteristics of positive romanticism, but it didn’t completely manifest the positive romanticism characteristic. Subjectivism, idealism, deeply loves for nature all embodiment the characteristics of positive romanticism.
Shelley is one of the repressive of positive romanticism. To some extent, Shelley is famous for “Ode to the West wind”. This poem is filled with triumphant and hopeful emotion.
This thesis targets at analyzing the features of positive romanticism. There also exist some faults in this thesis. The author hopes other English learners make more research.
Bibliography
[1] I.G.Robertston. The Genesis of Romantic Theory. Beijing: Beijing Foreign Language Education Press, 1923.
[2] W.T.Jones. The Romantic Syndrome. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1961.
[3] A.Thorlby. The Romantic Movement. California: California University Press, 1966.
[4] L.R.Furst. Romanticism in Perspective. London: Cambridge University Press, 1969.
[5] 江枫. 雪莱诗选[M]. 长沙:湖南人民出版社,1983.
[6] 北京师联教育科学研究所. 外国诗歌基本解读英国卷(中)[M]. 北京:人民武警出版社,2002.
[7] 刁克利. 英美文学欣赏[M]. 北京:中国人民大学出版社,2003.
[8] 桂杨清, 吴翔林. 英美文学选读[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译公司出版,1985.
[9] 田文信. 论浪漫主义[M]. 长沙:文化艺术出版社,1988.
[10] 朱光潜. 西方美学史[M]. 北京:人民文学出版社,1979.
[11] 杨周翰. 吴达元. 欧洲文学史[M]. 北京:人民文学出版社,1979.
[12] 肖亚娟. 西风颂赏析[J]. 辽宁:辽宁师范学院学报,2004.
[13] 程利平. 沈洁. 英国浪漫主义时期的历诗创作[J]. 广州:番禺职业技术学院学报,2006.
[14] 陆路. 浪漫与哲性.西风颂的两种解读范式[J]. 合肥:安徽教育学院学报,2005.
[15] 赵红英. 英国文学简史文学指南[M]. 北京:中国传媒大学出版社,2006.
1、《雅舍小品》。梁实秋的一部散文作品集,篇篇精致、优雅、幽默、有趣,常旁征博引,信手拈来浑然天成,会心一笑中品味社会百态;
2、《浪漫的与古典的》。梁实秋曾出版过论文集,宣扬白璧德的新人文主义。梁实秋是我国现代文学批评史上一位颇为独特的批评家,其前后期的批评理念差别很大:前期以浪漫主义批评为主,后期转而皈依于古典主义批评的门下;
3、《槐园梦忆》。收录了女人、男人、孩子、中年、老年、退休、讲价、乞丐吃相、饮酒、吸烟、雅舍、清华八年、忆《新月》、谈话的艺术、升官图、学问与趣味、利用零碎时间、骂人的艺术。
(来源:文章屋网 )
关键词:奇诗 浪漫主义 本色 南社交游
一、导言
晚清政治砥砺,作为中国最后一代传统文人,苏州狂人黄人异军突起,艺苑游骋,其首著的煌煌《中国文学史》被钱仲年先生誉为“牛腰巨挺,为国人自著文学史之嚆矢”,②其所著的戏曲被王永健先生誉为“文界之异军苍头”,③黄人,这座在清末民初文学界引起轩波的丰碑正逐步走进学人的研究视野,但因其文学作品散佚较多,加其曲高和寡,故一般人很难探其堂奥,遑论得其骊珠者也,鄙人草莽,欲怀先生“先着祖鞭”之志,厕追寻者之列,踵前人之足迹以观先生风雅之志。
二、黄生不怕人不识,变幻离奇逞神力
黄人是南社早期重要诗人。且在文学史论、小说理论、小说著译、办刊结社乃至词典编纂诸方面均有建树。他创造了近代文坛上五个“最早”:(1)最早编写《中国文学史》。(2)最早提出小说美的特殊本质。(3)最早编写百科大辞典。(4)最早刊载沈三白的《浮生六记》。(5)最早创办白话报。
然而,作为一个具有进步意义的传统文人,我们不应该忽视中国文学的正统主流文学形式――诗歌的研究,而这正是其思想精髓之渊薮。钱仲联《近百年诗坛点将录》点摩西为天煞星黑旋风,赞曰:“黄摩西,晚清之王仲瞿也。于书无所不读,自诗、词、小说,以及名学、法律、医药、内典、道籍,莫不穷究,兼通诸异术。慕黄石斋、黄陶庵、黄梨洲、黄九烟之为人,自颜其居曰‘石陶梨烟室’。诗兼仲瞿、定庵之长,而更为奇肆。《戊戌元旦日蚀诗》寄寓时事,可匹袁昶《地震诗》,而藻采过之。”④
三、“青莲之逸,昌黎之奇,长吉之怪,义山之丽”――无所不师而无定师
从《黄人集》所收1500余诗来看,黄人诗于律、绝、古风、民谣、各类阕调皆有所作,题材遍及咏史、怀古、写景、记事、论文、论诗等题材,如黄人的诗中有触及时势,反映清末政局,“寄寓时事,可匹袁昶《地震诗》,则藻采过之”⑤的《戊戌元旦日蚀》等长篇古风,黄人在这首诗借日蚀的自然现象,对晚清朝政进行了尖锐的批评与谴责。
黄人还写了不少通俗易懂、朗朗上口的民谣。《劝种桑歌》从种桑的好处、用地、施肥、修剪到养蚕的要领、缫丝的方法都一一作了通俗说明,其中写道:“玄贝蕉萃米囊肥,游手安饱绩女饥。纺线织布虽平等,洋纱夺之利已微。”“朝愁租税暮愁荒,一年辛苦不得偿,有田有力总有法,何不听我歌种桑。”⑥其阐述之明了,说理之清楚,既充分显示了黄人的博学多才,又反映了他贴近生活的平民意识。
除了在诗歌题材上宏伟阔绰外,在风格上亦是“转益多师是汝师”,如其在《前出塞和老杜韵》中的“生材必有用,杀贼好身手。七尺葬马革,此志蓄之久”,以及在《偶书》中的“燕昭筑高台,罗致天下士。士无贤不肖,概以黄金市”,此两处均化用李白的诗典和事典。而在《梦游仙》中的“石破天惊补不平,当关铁额尚狰狞”及《太平洋七歌》中的“赤彘云中赤帝子连弩惊天大鱼死”句以及《天上遥》全篇则是凸显的李长吉的奇特乖舛之风。而在《和退之此日足可惜韵寄耀堂》中则与韩诗风格绝类。
秦琪说黄人“古体跌荡纵横,雄奇瑰丽,骨苍而韵逸,气而趣博”。⑦姚晓雷在分析黄人《题长吉集》时写道:黄人“是一个才华高妙且极富有创新热情的人……他题咏李贺诗集,既肯定李贺的奇崛幽峭,裱丽凄清的浪漫主义风格,但又认为李贺并非不可企及和逾越,表达了黄人勇于创新的自信和自己独特的风格”。⑧黄人的诗中“满怀着惊人的奇气,势压九州的奇情,其奇举和奇句之馨香可直达天庭”。⑧
四、 “诗本天籁,出于自然”――黄人诗之真性美
摩西在其所著《中国文学史》中提出“诗本天籁”,“感情是自然的”主张。他不仅反对评论者“凭臆见”的各种说诗,也不赞成诗人专意于拗体、蜂腰、断弦等等。⑨基于这种观点,摩西主张诗歌要写出“真意”,保持“本色”,具有“真性情”。摩西赋诗填词和评论诗词,强调“奇气”、“奇情”、“奇举”和“奇句”。因而奇伟、瑰异和恣肆,既是摩西诗词的艺术风格,也是他对诗美的追求。
在摩西看来,“感情为自然的,而思想则为当然也。感情倾向于客观的一方面,而思想则倾向于主观的方面者也。感情之程度,其受感者,虽文野万有不齐,而其能感者则一”。再者,欣赏天籁、自然之作,必然反对缔饰雕琢。摩西论《诗之修词法》曰:
虽全出天籁,而如风行水上,云在空中,瞬息千变,各呈奇巧。后世词章家呕心涸脑,自矜创获,终不能遁出其范围。是知琼琚玉佩之庄严,终逊秋波一转之剪彩;刻楮之工巧,何如春风一嘘。一切格律、神韵、性灵之径磋聚讼,皆盲人争象耳。⑨
由于黄人所处的是一个“荆棘遍地,豺虎载道”⑩的时代,众多文人萌生黍离麦秀之感,椎心泣骨之痛,于是寻求解脱,而黄人亦秉着抒发“本真之性”的创作原则,创作一些隐逸之诗,毫不矫揉造作。如其在《游虞山诗序》中所说:“独念吾侪偃息承平,上之不能赞禹刊益烈之绩,次之不能铭燕然溯昆仑,又不能笔蓬瀛为国家鼓吹,惟是放志林麓,借渔樵仙释荒凉寂寞之境,以鸣其豫,良足感……三径就荒,归计未决。”此篇上追大禹之遗烈,下溯刻石燕然之勋功,而反躬自省,唯有放志山林,梅妻鹤子,方解荒凉之境,可谓感情真切直露。其在《小说林发刊词》中亦云“鸱夷一舸,青冢一不失幽芬”,借用范蠡泛扁舟的典故,以及《金缕曲》中“娥眉自古招人妒。倒不如淮南鸡犬,舐丹飞去”淮南王鸡犬升天的故事来隐喻作者的心境。其真性情可见一斑。
五、近代浪漫主义之魁首
钱仲联《梦苕庵诗话》评曰:近人论浪漫主义诗人,争称苏曼殊。曼殊尚浮浅不足道。若吾邑黄摩西,则不愧近代浪漫诗人之魁首矣!此论良是。
摩西之诗构思奇特,往往通过奇异的想象,用奇情洋溢的奇句构成生动有魅力的形象,这类佳作真是不胜枚举。
如《送穷》中“敝衣恶食古帝子,转世又为后羿氏。门外神荼颜可怕,苇索飞来缚汝下,送与钟馗佑除夜”以浪漫主义笔调写出了劳动人民希望摆脱贫穷的淳朴愿望。《祭诗》诗具有一泻千里的磅礴大气,其中“欲祭诗,应祭我,祭我何如祭诗妥?我难不死诗长生,骨枯肉烂心血存”一句颇有“我以我血荐轩辕”之感。
他如《时疫盛行戏作》、《祝心渊望岳图》、《暑剧戏作参用昌谷、玉川体》、《过湖荡纪事》等等,都是充分显示了浪漫主义特色的诗篇。而这些浪漫主义的体现主要是借助那奇崛的想象以及“妙手偶得”的语言气势,其虽不能与太白相俦,但亦轨其道,得其髓矣,此言岂为过乎?
但是,最为出奇而引人刮目相看的,当推《元旦日蚀诗》:“帝纳刍荛,布新除旧。三台四辅,焕彻左右。群星坏政,或黜或宥。九天失色,出处列宿。姑释勿问,以备四守。月卜其夜,日卜其昼。各安其位,不相刺谬,天眼复完,以瞩宇宙。”
钱仲联《梦苕庵诗话》指出:“虽使卢仝、徐积、刘基执笔,亦不能过。诗作于光绪戊戌,指斥金轮,语意极显,诗家之董狐也。”即在古典诗词史上,可与卢仝的《月蚀诗》和刘基的《二鬼诗》鼎足而三。全诗以寄托的手法,激昂的神态,瑰丽的词藻,一展黄人胸中的豪气。
当然有人说摩西之诗由“豪宕”而归于“平淡”。应该强调的是,摩西诗风前后虽有变化,但万变不离其宗,其浪漫主义的奇情壮采和奇气瑰异特点,则是一以贯之的。何以会形成摩西这种恣肆的浪漫主义文风呢,秦琪的《摩西遗诗序》可以做佐证:“所为诗,近体高华秀拔,神骨天成。古体跌宕纵横雄奇瑰丽,骨苍而韵逸,气而趣博,以其胸中所幽苦怨愤磅礴郁积者一发于诗。”
六、后记
黄摩西所处时代如李鸿章所言:“处数千年未有之奇局,自应建数千年未有之奇业。”历史的特殊机缘使近现代成为一个奇人辈出的时代。乱世出英雄,这是着眼于政治的解读,从文化学术的视角来看,也同样可以说乱世出奇才。
正如文史专家时萌教授所言:“世称摩西为‘奇人’、隆杰’,仅为其个性放浪不守绳墨之一面,其实先生亦有其庄正之一面。如戊戌年从容论政,辛亥时参与鼎革;既掩护章太炎力避缇骑于前,又吟诗寄怀太炎狱中于后;倡小说之新论,编弘扬新学之辞典,等等。先生存年四十八度春秋,历经动荡激变,其学其行,莫不与时代之递变符节,惜乎长才未展,赍志而没,然不愧为才气踔厉之一代学人。”⑽
注释
① 柳亚子.胡寄尘诗序[A]//孙之梅.南社研究[M].人民文学出版社,2003:382.
② 钱仲联.苏州奇人黄摩西评传序[A]//王永健.“苏州奇人”黄摩西评传[M].苏州大学出版社,2003.
③ 王永健.20世纪中国古代戏曲研究的拓荒者黄摩西戏曲理论批评简论[J].东南大学报(哲学社会科学版),2000(01).
④ 梦苕庵论集[M].中华书局,1993.
⑤ 近百年诗坛点将录・天煞星黑旋风李逵[A]//梦苕庵论集[C].中华书局,1993.
⑥ 劝种桑歌[A]//江庆柏,曹培根.黄人集[M].上海文化出版社,2001:214.
⑦ 秦琪.摩西遗诗序[A]//江庆柏,曹培根.黄人集[M].上海文化出版社,2001:359.
⑧ 姚晓雷.黄人“题长吉集”析[A]//元明清诗鉴赏辞典[C].1994.
⑨ 中国文史・分论・韵[M].苏州大学图书馆藏.
⑩ 与雷铁书[A]//南社丛刻・第十三集[C].江苏广陵古籍,1996.
一、沈从文的小说理论是对传统小说理论的突破,成就了现代小说理论的辉煌
传统观念是轻视小说的,认为小说是不登大雅之堂的。在读书人心目中,只有诗、文、词才是正经的“文学艺术”。虽然经过梁启超等人的“小说界革命”,提高了小说在变革社会中的政治地位,但小说在文学上的正宗地位,并没有得以肯定。直到“五四”文学革命倡导时期,小说的文学正宗地位才得以确立。“五四”时期,沈从文和一样,都是将小说视为文学的正宗的,不仅在理论上予以重视,而且用自己的创作来确立小说的文学的正宗地位。他后来在《我怎么就写起小说来》一文中说:“动摇旧社会,建立新制度,做个‘抒情诗人’似不如做个写实小说作家工作扎实而具体。因为后者所表现的,不仅情感或观念,将是一系列生动活泼的事件,是一些能够使多数人在另外一时一地,更容易领会共鸣的事件。”[1]这是沈从文创作小说的出发点。在变幻莫测的小说理论世界,沈从文自始至终都认为艺术应该为人生、应该拥抱人生的宗旨。与当时文坛领军人物鲁迅重视用小说来改造国民精神不同的是,沈从文企图通过对人性的表达和对“生命神性”的探求,来获得“生命的明悟”,以缓解现实的痛苦,从而达到社会重造与生命重造的目的。更值得一提的是,沈从文把“人性表达”看得超越于时代,却不脱离现实生活,避开阶级、政治、商业角度单纯刻画人性,这成为沈从文小说人性观的独特之处。
沈从文是个有鲜明创作个性和独特风格的作家,他在小说创作上勤于学习,勇于探索,从不墨守成规。在传统小说理论的基础上,他创造性地发展了抒情小说这一体式,创造了诗意的抒情小说文体,或诗化抒情小说体。他实际上是把诗和散文引进小说之中,打破了三者的界限,从而也就扩大了小说的表现领域及其审美的功能。他还表示,“将文学限于一种定型格式中,使一般人以为必如此如彼,才叫做小说,叫做散文,叫做诗歌”,这样的习惯观念会束缚住“自己一支笔,无从使用,更使一般人望而却步,不敢用笔,即用笔,写出来和习惯不大相合,也不成功!”短篇创作应当是“揉小说故事散文游记而为一”,“自成一个新的型式”。[2]沈从文是诗化小说的代表作家,他继承和发展了废名开创的诗化小说的传统,并在现代文学第二个十年达到大成。沈从文的小说风格直接影响了他的学生汪曾祺,而汪曾祺的小说又直接或间接地影响了后来的张承志的小说创作。从废名始,这些作家的作品显示了诗化小说在中国现代文学史上的发展进程。
米兰·昆德拉说:“小说家存在的意义不是对既成现实作出准确的临摹,而是必须对存在作出判断和思考。”他提出了“情绪的体操”与“抽象的抒情”的创作方法,这体现出的是一种生存的焦虑,是作家对我们现实生活处境的深刻洞察,是对生命的诗性关照。
二、沈从文的小说理论大大推进了小说理论的现代化进程
沈从文的小说理论既借鉴西方现代小说理论的某些观念和观点,又在此基础上有所创新和开拓,沈从文虽然没有正式进入大学学过西方文学理论,但从事教学和编辑工作的大量经验和超凡的艺术感悟力,已使他的理论触及到了批判现实主义小说和浪漫主义小说的某些实质问题,这集中的体现在他声称所受契诃夫和屠格涅夫等作家作品的影响,但他从不拘泥于前人的认识和成果,而是“兼容并包,从不排斥拒绝不同方式浸入生命的任何离奇不经事物”,[6]却又依据自己的文化个性和审美趣味,取其精华,然后加以创造性的运用。契诃夫和屠格涅夫两位作家对社会最底层人民的关注与同情,对沈从文的理念和创作产生了深远的影响。在人物塑造上,沈从文主张“表现社会下层人们的生存状态”,要求小说积极反映社会下层现实,关注普通人的命运,这无疑代表了某种现代意识的觉醒,成为“五四”所提倡的通俗、平易的“国民文学”、“写实文学”及“社会文学”等观念的先声。屠格涅夫“把人和景物相错综在一起”的叙事方法对沈从文田园牧歌式的乡土文学创作产生影响,不过沈从文在此基础上作了更深的探索和发掘,从而形成其独特的浪漫理论。他自称是20世纪“最后一个浪漫派”,这种浪漫不同于西方浪漫主义对现实极端不满,在藐视中自觉地疏离现实,而他的小说不仅表现了一种田园牧歌情调,或呈现出诗意的风格,更是充满忧伤和艰辛的人生图景。另一方面,西方浪漫主义秉承希伯来文化的神秘、怪诞 传统,拒绝理性、平凡,强调“真正的诗所唯一承认的东西,是令人惊叹的东西,不可思议的东西,神秘的东西。”[7]而沈从文所向往和一心希望建造的是一座供奉“人性”的希腊小庙,这种与“人性”关联的其人其事其情并不荒诞也不神秘,都真真切切地来自现实生活,给人们一种亲切感。
三、对中国整个乡土小说创作、小说理论产生深远的影响
从当代小说理论的视野来看,沈从文小说理论涉及的方方面面,无不对中国整个乡土小说创作、小说理论产生深远的影响。沈从文在小说题材上主张“乡土生活与民族精神”的结合,着重表现中国乡村恬静和谐的生活与淳朴率真的人性,既反映出东方文化的博大、淡远与时代的空灵和浪漫,又具有历史的悲剧和文化的反思,从而扩展了鲁迅以来乡土小说追求“乡土批判”的内涵。他主张的“乡土”一方面要表现当时乡土小说的一些共同特征,如乡民的生存状态、民情风俗、乡愁情绪等等;另一方面,又要通过对湘西民众生存与异域情调的描述,倾尽全力地表现了一种“优美,健康,自然,而又不悖乎人性的人生形式”。这种“人生形式”是从来就有的,生生不息的,它融化在了人们的日常生活中,变成了一种人的道德、信念、人情、人性,或者说是一种无所不在的“地域文化”,这种“地域文化”是边城独有的。在风俗画中蕴含丰富的文化,就使这风俗画显得余味无穷,也使沈从文的“乡土”观念超越了许多同时代作家的作品,从而形成了沈从文独特的现实视象。这对后来的许多作家都产生了一定的影响。以韩少功、贾平凹为代表的寻根作家都“企图利用神话、传说、梦幻以及风俗为小说的架构,建立一种自己的理想观念、价值观念、伦理道德观念和文化观念”。这种风格的营造不难看出沈从文界定的小说即“人事现象和梦的现象”的混合影子。
沈从文对当代乡土小说艺术的突出贡献,还在于他善于运用非常个性化的方言、土语,精心建造一个神秘莫测的美好的湘西世界,在小说的抒情诗手法和田园诗风格等方面取得了自己独特的成就。他对乡村现实的想象没有流于一般的革命模式,更富有抒情诗意味的地域小说比起吴祖缃、张天翼、沙汀和艾芜等人更具政治教化意义的现实主义作品,给后来年轻一代作家带来了特别大的鼓舞。此后的很多作家诸如萧红等就受他抒情诗手法的影响,其小说中所蕴含的深厚的文化内涵也在以后的文学创作尤其在建国后的寻根文学中得以继承。金介甫曾在《羊城晚报》的访谈录中指出,沈从文对世界华文文学的影响很大,包括台湾在内,新时期的年轻作家,像何立伟、古华、韩少功、孙建中、贾平凹、阿城,还有他40年代的学生汪曾祺,直接继承了他的田园牧歌风格。另外,寻根文学在审美上突出“善”和“美”,具有一种浪漫主义的精神内核,其对文化功利性和文学艺术性的自觉追求表现出浪漫主义的风格,细细分析,不难发现这种审美特征受到了沈从文小说理论和创作的影响。
【参考文献】
[1] 沈从文.沈从文全集(第12卷)[M].太原:北岳文艺出版社,2002.414.
[2] 钱理群编.二十世纪中国小说理论资料(第4卷)[M].北京:北京大学出版社,1997.457.
[3] (捷克)米兰·昆德拉.小说的艺术[M].北京:三联书店,1992.158.
[4] 沈从文.沈从文小说[M].浙江:浙江文艺出版社,2007.
[5] (美)金介甫.沈从文笔下的中国社会与文化(虞建华,邵华强译)[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,1994.
[6] 沈从文.从文自传[M].北京:十月文艺出版社,2008.
[7] 刘小枫.诗化哲学[M].济南:山东文艺出版社,1986.30.
【作者简介】
古今中外,文学界对于文学批评的重视程度都随着时间的发展越来越高,而且经过漫长的历史发展,我们渐渐的发现,对于同样的作品,不同的国家对其的评价是不同的,也可以说文学批评受到各国文化差异的影响。每个国家都有其特定的历史文化,而这些文化背景在一定程度上会对该国家的文学评论产生一定的影响。也正是存在差异的文化评论造成了文学评论的多样性。英美文化也是如此,存在着差异,对英美两国的文学评论造成了一定的影响。下面是我对这一问题的简单认识。
关键词:
英美文化;文化差异;文学评论
一.文学评论的内涵
文学评论,顾名思义,评论文学。用专业的术语来讲,是应用文学方面的理论知识,对特定的文学内容,比如说文学作品,文学思想等进行探讨、研究等一系列文学性质的活动,以解释文学发展的内部规律,从而帮助相关的文学家进行文学创造,推动整个文学的健康稳定发展。
二.英美文学的相关内容
英美文学是对英、美两国民间文化艺术的总称。同样的是两个现实生活的生动反应。我认为文学具有很强的表现能力和表述功能,而且英美两国的文化比较多元化,决定了其文学风格的多元化,戏剧、小说、诗歌等类型多样,各具特点:(1)英国文学的特点英国是一个临海国家,不仅气候极具海洋性,其文学也是如此,包容性十足,充满着浪漫主义的气息,再加上英国的经济、历史发展传统,在经历了文艺复兴、启蒙运动之后,英国的文学由浪漫主义、现实主义等开始转向写实主义,这是英国文学发展的一般趋势。(2)美国文学的特点美国是一个多民族的移民国家,建国的时间比较短,在19世纪之前,美国文学可以说是依附于英国文学,具有英国文学的一些特征,但是在19世纪末期之后,美国文学开始脱离英国文学,逐渐形成了自己独特的风格,多方面、平民化、自由化等。就像美国的社会一样充满着自由、民主的气息。
三.英美文学评论的内容
各国的文学评论各具特点,但是仍然是有规律可循的,需要注意三个问题,首先是文学伦理问题,这是要放在首位进行考虑的问题;其次是道德评论,这是进行文学评论的关键所在;最后是审美评论问题。具体到英美两国来说,文学评论与该国发展的实际情况有着极大的关系,在女权主义、殖民主义等思想观念的影响下,文学评论研究文学和社会的关系,开创了文学研究的新方向。
四.英美文化差异对于英美文学的影响
(1)英美两国的语言差异对英美文学评论的影响
1.英国的语言英国文化历史悠久,民族文化发展时间较长,有着深厚的历史文化底蕴,就拿英国的官方语言:英文来讲,许多的文学评论家在对英国文学进行评论时,使用语言十分的谨慎,这既能说明文学评论家谨慎的态度,同时也更能说明英文的地位和重要性,可以说英文便是英国的象征,因此出于这样的态度,英国文学评论是相对拘谨的、缺乏新时期的创新与个性;
2.美国的语言美国官方使用的语言也是英文,但是却是美式英文,虽然说在本质上,英式英语和美式英语没有发生什么变化,但是就是美式英语的称谓便能很好的说明问题,美式英语是美国的创造,是美国争取独立的体现,众所周知美国发展历史比较短,而且是移民国家,文化发展多元化特征十分显著,在独立之后,美国在政治、历史等方面都没有历史遗留问题,可以说美国的民主革命是十分成功的,相应的在文学评论方面美国的文学评论就彰显个性和创新性。
(2)文化历史差异对英美文学评论的影响人本主义是英美两国共同宣扬与崇拜的,但是英美两国的人本主义又存在着具体的差别:
1.人本主义是英国发展历史上很早便出现的,但是在文学评论领域人本主义是十分保守的,神权和禁欲主义依然处于主导地位,我认为这是英国资产阶级革命不彻底的生动体现,资产阶级的妥协性在文学领域的再现,莎士比亚是英国最为伟大的文学家,我认为没有之一,莎士比亚不仅影响了英国一代人,更影响了整个世界。他的作品可以说是英国文学创作的典型代表,对其作品进行研究之后发现,人文主义在其作品中有很多的体现。
2.相比英国的人本主义,美国就十分创新、独特。当然这和美国发展的历史是密不可分的,美国的独立是十分果断的,没有历史遗留问题,争取独立自由的观念理论深入人心,美国的人本主义十分的激进而且在一定程度上还有对人本主义的创新理解。在这基础上美国的文学评论就显得更加激进、创新。
五、小结:
Romanticism, as a historical phase of the 19th century in literature, stresses the close relationship between man and nature, and continues a change of direction from the attention paid to the outer world of social civilization to the inner world of the human spirit. Romantics feel that the present society denies people’s essential human need, and their expectation to live in countryside, which is beautiful, quiet and could prevent human from sadness, terror, and fear. As You Like It is one of Shakespeare’s four famous comedies. The whole story happens in Arden forest. The duke senior and his old followers take residence in the forest, and when they arrive there and live for some days, they are fully attracted by the beautiful scenery and forget the court’s sadness. Country life makes people get refreshed. Romanticism critics give a high praise to As You Like it.
This paper tries to analyze the close relationship between As You like It and Romanticism. In the play, the author demonstrates a living world which has close relationship with men and is the source of their life. Based on the analysis of the close relationship between the play and Romanticism, and four scenes extracted from the play, the paper aims at the exploration and interpretation of Romanticism in the play.
Key Words
Romanticism; As You Like It; nature; emotion; comedy
摘 要
发生在19世纪的浪漫主义文学铸造了文学史上的一段神话,对后世产生了深远的影响。浪漫主义文学注重描写人的内心感受,并认为现实社会忽略了人的本质追求,并主张回归原始的田园生活,在宁静幽雅的自然乡村生活能让人身心得以放松,远离尘世生活的压力,喧嚣。《皆大欢喜》作为莎士比亚的四大喜剧之一,整个剧情在宁静、秀美的亚登森林中展开,讲述了被其弟篡夺了爵位后的老公爵和他的忠实的随从们来到森林里,忘却宫廷的虚伪与争夺,享受着自然的洗礼,心灵也得以净化和升华,给人一种浪漫的情怀。19 世纪的浪漫主义学者对这部喜剧情有独钟。
在作品中作者展现了一个与人类有着密切联系,并赋予人类生活的自然世界。论文通过对作品与浪漫主义的密切关系以及四幕精彩剧情的分析,揭示与解读《皆大欢喜》中的浪漫主义。
关键词
浪漫主义;皆大欢喜;自然;情感;喜剧
Introduction
Romance has a close relationship with people. It does not only make life colorful, but also lets people understand how to live a better life. Facing the stresses from work, one can do some romantic things to relax. It is known to all, that Romanticism was popular in Europe in the 19th century. Romantics stressed the close relationship between man and nature. They expected to live in countryside, and they always viewed intuition and emotions more important than reason and common sense. There was much greater stress on emotions in the writing of the romantic period. Romantics held the notion that one could find truth through one’s feelings. They thought the world as a lively, breathing being, and admired those who could speak the words from their inner world, and expect every person to express their feeling freely. They believed everybody’s inner self (subconscious) was meaningful, and everybody should have an opportunity to be creative and to express his own thoughts. The 19th century romantic critics regarded As You Like It as the declaration of Romanticism. As You Like It is one of Shakespeare’s four comedies which was seen as a perfect comedy. From the writing background and the contents of Act ii scene i, Act iii scene ii, Act iii scene ii, Act iii scene v, there is a conclusion that everyone looks forward to having a romantic life.
Through analysis of As You Like It, readers can understand the demonstration of Romanticism in the play and know more about Romanticism which makes people’s life more lively, interesting and harmonious.
I. A Brief Introduction to Romanticism
Romanticism (the Romantic Movement), a literary movement, is profound shift in sensibility, which took place in Britain and throughout Europe during 1770-1848. Intellectually it marked a violent reaction to the Enlightenment. Politically it was inspired by the revolutions in America and France and popular wars of independence in Poland, Spain, Greece, and elsewhere. Emotionally it expressed an extreme assertion of the self and the value of inpidual experience (the 'egotistical sublime'), together with the sense of the infinite and transcendental. Socially it championed progressive causes, though when these were frustrated it often produced a bitter, gloomy, and despairing outlook. The romantics paid great attention to the spiritual and emotional life of man. Personified nature plays an important role in the pages of their works.
A. The Characteristics of Romanticism
(1) Romanticism was a rebellion against the objectivity of rationalism. It was a movement of conscious rebellion against being too objective. The romantic spirit was one of subjectivity of inward feelings that one could trust one’s subjective responses. Romantics placed a high premium upon the creative function of imagination, and saw art as a formulation of intuitive and imaginative perceptions that tend to speak a nobler truth than that of fact.
(2) For romantics, the feelings, intuitions and emotions were more important than reason and common sense. The controversy was one between head thinking and heart feeling. There was a much greater stress on emotions in the writing of the romantic period. Romantics held that one could find truth through one’s feelings. This is just the opposite of the rational theories that Benjamin Franklin followed. Rationalists would say that people could find truth through scientific investigation, but romantics were ready to trust their feelings as an avenue for finding truth and finding what was essential in life They believed that the irrational was important in human experience and that not everything could be explained by reason.
(3) Romantics did not think of the world as a ticking watch made by God. They thought of the world as a living, breathing being. They stressed the close relationship between man and nature. They viewed nature as an example and source of vivid physical beauty and as a manifestation of spirit in the universe. With deep love for nature, they saw nature as a revelation of truth, the living garment of God. Therefore, nature was a suitable subject for true art. They believed that God was immanent in creation. In other words, when they would look at the finite objects in this world, they would find the presence of an infinite God.
(4) Romantics emphasized inpidualism, placing the inpidual against the group, against authority. They saw the inpidual at the very center of life and art. They emphasized personal freedom and freedom from formalism, tradition, and conformity. They delighted in self-analysis, intricate examination and full exposure of the soul. They cherished no hero-worship, yet believed in the perfectibility of humanity. Romantics believed in the natural goodness of human beings. They held that humanity close to nature would behave well, and would not be hindered by civilization.
(5) Romantics affirmed the inner life of the self, and wanted each person to be free to develop and express his own inner thoughts. They believed everybody’s inner self (subconscious) was meaningful, and everybody should have an opportunity to be creative and to express his own thoughts.
(6) Romantics cherished strong interest in the past, especially the medieval. They were attracted by the primitive because the primitive often was innocent and close to nature. There were many things written by the romantics about the American Indian. They romanticized the American Indian into a noble savage who was close to nature. Their attitudes were quite different from Puritans who emphasized that the Indians were wild, degenerate barbarians. They compared them to Satan. The romantics would look at the Indians as close to nature and therefore close in touch with God. The romanticists paid great attention to the spiritual and emotional life of man. Personified nature plays an important role in the pages of their works.
(7). Romantics were attracted by the wild, irregular, indefinite, remote, mysterious, and the strange.
Romanticism has a deep influence on the contemporary time. Today, many people still have been researching on it. By reading As You Like It, one can have a feeling that the rebirth of romanticism. As you like it is a comedy written by Shakespeare, who was a popular playwright writing for the commercial theater in London in the 16th century. Shakespeare was not college-educated, and although his company had the sponsorship of King James, his work was not entirely "respectable.” He has written many plays, including comedies, tragedies and some sonnets. His work had great influence through ages over the world. To the Romantics, however, Shakespeare’s plays are the essence of folk poetry, the ultimate vindication of their faith in spontaneous creativity. Many European dramas in 19th century were influenced by him. Painters illustrated scenes from his plays, and composers based orchestral tone poems and operas on his narratives. As You Like It was one of the most famous comedies of Shakespeare’s. From the setting of the whole story one can find that the forest life is full of truth, kindness, beauty and love, which was the life that the 19th romantics were expecting to.
II. Shakespeare’s As You Like It
A. Background
In 1598,Shakespeare wrote As You Like It. And it becomes one of his four famous comedies. The play tells a tale happening in the Forest of Arden which is near the hometown Strafford –upon –Avon. When he was a child, he went to play in that place, and had a good memory about that period. He was attracted by the peace and beautiful views and expected to live there. In 16th there was a movement happening in Europe where humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of those old feudalist ideas in Medieval Age, to introduce new ideas, and they also voiced that man did not only have ability to perfect himself and to perform wonders, Shakespeare was influenced by this sense, later these beliefs were expressed in the play As You Like It.
B. Summary
As the play opens, Duck Fredrick has usurped the title and throne of his elder brother, Duck Senior. The elder Duke and his loyal followers have taken up residence in the Forest of Arden. The banish duke’s daughter named Rosalind, when Frederick drove out her father, still kept in his court as a companion for his own daughter Celia. A close friendship had grown up between these ladies, which the quarrels of their fathers did not break. Celia tried by every kindness in her power to repay Rosalind for the injustice. Orlando and Oliver are two brothers pided by enmity, Orlando has long been mistreated by his brother and when Orlando enters a wrestling match sponsored by Duke Frederick, he attracts the attention of Rosalind. Likewise, Duke Frederick’s daughter and Rosalind to Arden like her father; Celia, Frederick’s daughter and Rosalind’s best friend, travels with her. Rosalind disguises herself as a boy called Ganymede, and Celia will take the part of “his” sister, Aliens. They are accompanied by the clown Touchstone. They met Orland, Rosalind promises to cure Orlando’s heartache by letting him pour his feelings out to Ganymede as if he were Rosalind. Also as Ganymede, Rosalind attempts a match between Silvia’s and Phebe that goes awry; Phebe falls for Rosalind’s Ganymede alter ego. Touchstone also courts a country girl named Audrey.
The resolution begins when Oliver enters the camp. Orlando saved him from an attack by a lion, and the two brothers have reconciled, upon meeting Celia, now Oliver falls in love. A duck senior promise to join them in wedlock the next day, Rosalind makes Phebe to marry Silvius if she can’t have Ganymede, when all have gathered for the wedding. Rosalind reveals herself as the erstwhile Ganymede, She and Orlando are happily reunited. And Phebe agrees to marry Sivius. The duke gave his consent to the marriage; and Orlando and Rosalind ,Oliver and Celia, were married at the same time, and though their wedding could not be celebrated in this wild forest with any splendors, yet a happier wedding day was never passed, and while they were eating under the cool shade of pleasant trees, a message arrived to tell the duke the joyful news, that his dukedom was given bake to him, this joyful news came just in time to perfect the joy of all who were the wedding of princesses. The duke was now able to reward those friends who had stayed with him in the forest, and these worthy followers, though they had patiently shared his troubles, were very well pleased to return in peace and happiness to the palace of their lawful duke.
Frederic, angry at his the flight of his daughter Celia, and entered the wild forest, he was met by an old religious man, with whom he had much talk, and who in the end completely turned his heart from his wicked plan, he became truly sorry, and resolved to give up his dukedom to spend the rest of his days in a religious.
In this play we can touch the country life more truly from old Duck’s speech in Act ii Scene I; the dialogue between Touchtone and Corin Act iii Scene ii 2.from the Act iii Scene ii, Act iii Scene v we can know that each person expect to be free to develop and express his own inner thoughts. And everybody’s inner self (subconscious) is meaningful; man should have an opportunity to be creative and to express his own thoughts.
III. Analysis of Some Specific Acts of the Comedy
A. Affirmation of the Inner Life of the Self
Although the great Romantic works often center on terror or rage, the motive force behind these passions is most often a relationship between a pair of lovers. Rosalind is waiting for Orlando in the forest. She overhears a conversation between a young shepherd and Phebe a shepherdess he lovers, but Phebe refuses the shepherd’s love, chilling him cruelly and telling him to leave her along. Rosalind has seen enough and she jumps into the conversation, chiding Phebe for being too cruel to the poor shepherd. In Rosalind eyes, everyone has the right to love other people .and whatever love or be loved, all should perish this love and catch this love closely, because that is the best gifts. Of all the emotions celebrated by the Romantics, the most popular was love. Medieval troubadours had celebrated courtly adultery according to a highly artificial code that little reflected the lives of real men and women while agreeing with physicians that romantic passion was a potentially fatal disease. It was the romantics who first celebrated romantic love as the natural birthright of every human being, the most exalted of human sentiments, and the necessary foundation of a successful marriage. Whether or not one agrees that this change of attitude was a wise one, it must be admitted to have been one of the most influential in the history of the world. In this comedy, Rosaland says:
You are a thousand times a proper man that she a woman. Is such fools as you that make the world full of ill-favored children.’ is Not her glass but you that flatter her, And out of you she sees herself more proper but, mistress, know yourself, down on your knees, and thank heaven, fasting, for a good man’s love; During the life we should not refuse the love of other people .when we come to the world ,we are crowed by the care of parents and giving out our love to the people around us .and love should not choose object everyone has the equal right to receive the care from others( Huang Bikang,2005,35)
B. Emphasis on Inpidualism
Romanticism emphasized the inpidual, the subjective, the personal, the spontaneous, and the emotional. Before the 18th Century, few Europeans concerned themselves with discovering their own inpidual identities. In the Arden forest, Touchtone meets Corin, a shepherd, and they engaged in a comic debate about the advantage and disadvantages of shepherds’ life in the country in contrast to the life of a courtier. This dialogue between a court and a shepherd in the Forest of Arden hits upon the central theme of the play, namely, idyllic country life purges the human mind of the dirt collect in the complicated power relation of the human society. From this talk, we can find that: people earn that they eat, get that they wear. They were not what they had been born: nobles, peasants, or merchants. The new industrialists naturally liked to credit themselves for having built their large fortunes and rejected the right of society to regulate. Just as Corin says:
Those that are good manners at the court are as ridiculous in the country as the behavior of the country is most mock able at the court. You told me you salute not at the court but you kiss your hands; that courtesy would be uncleanly if courtiers were shepherds. Besides, our hands are hard. I am a true laborer: I earn that I at, get that I wear, owe no man hate, envy no man’s happiness, glad of other men’s good, content with my harm, and the greatest of my pride is to see my ewes graze and my lands suck.. ( Huang Bikang,2005,57)
C. The Close Relationship Between Man and Nature
Particular perspectives with regard to nature varied considerably--nature as a healing power, nature as a source of subject and image. Frederick has seized his brother’s power and banished him from his dukedom. The duke senior then has to live in the Forest of Arden with his loyal followers. In the forest, this life is so simple and common, there is no wear the luxurious clothes and jewelry, no big house, no warm close. This offered the old duke’s everyday life in the forest. But the old duke enjoys this life. To understand why this should have been so, we need to look more closely at the nature of the style and its origins. There has hardly been a time since the earliest antiquity that Europeans did not celebrate nature in some form or other, but the attitudes toward nature common in the Western world today emerged mostly during the Romantic period. The Enlightenment had talked of "natural law" as the source of truth, but such law was manifest in human society and related principally to civic behavior. Unlike the Chinese and Japanese, Europeans had traditionally had little interest in natural landscapes for their own sake. Romantics stress the close relationship between man and nature. The subject of the relationship of Romanticism to nature is a vast one which can be touched on here. The old duke attracted by the wild life, in winter he shrinks with cold. But in this shrinking, old duke find out a true self. Nature has great power which makes the old man lives so well, just as he said below:
Now, here feel we not the penalty of Adam, the season’s difference, as the icy fang and churlish chiding of the winter’s wind. Which when it bites and blows upon my body even till I shrink with cold, but this is no flattery: these are counselors that feeling persuade me what I am?” Sweet are the uses of adversity, which, like the toad, Ugly and venomous, wears yet a precious jewel in his head; And this our life, exempt from public haunt, Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in every thing. I would not change it. (Huang Bikang, 2005,55)
D. Pursuit of Emotions
The Romanticists paid great attention to the spiritual and emotional life of man. In the Forest of Arden, the youth man Orlando, something in the heart is haunting him, which makes him miss someone everyday. He hangs little love poems on trees and brushes to express his love to Rosalind. At the same time the girl he loved is also in love with him, but he does know that. Romantics generally called for greater attention to the emotions as a necessary supplement to purely logical reason. Personified nature plays an important role in the pages of their works. Remembered childhood, unrequited love, and the exiled hero were constant themes. They discussed dreams, dramatic illusion, and Romantic sensibility, the process of creativity, the limits of Classicism and Reason, and the dynamic nature of the Imagination. In As You Like It, Rosalind talks that:
Love is merely madness, and I tell you, deserves as well a dark house and a whip as madmen do; and the reason why they are not so punished and cured is, that the lunacy is so ordinary that the whispers are in love too. Yet I profess curing it by counsel. He was to imagine me his love, his mistress; and I set him every day to woo me. At which time I would being a monish youth, grieve, be effeminate, changeable ,longing and liking proud, fantastical, apish, shallow, inconstant, full of tears, full of smiles; for every passion something, and for no passion truly any thing ,as boys and women are for the most part cattle of this color. (Huang Bikang, 2005, 46)
In the forest, the idyllic country life shows out the theme of life: truth, kindness, beauty and love. In this comedy, Shakespeare opens a door to the life of the perfect point. And this life style was received and profound by the latter people. From the publication of lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge in 1798 to the death of sir Walter Scott in 1832, a new movement appeared on the literary area .the essence of this new movement is the glorification of instincts and emotion, a deep renovation of nature and a flaming zeal to remark the world .Under the influence of the America and French revolutions, national liberation movements and democratic movements swept across many European countries
.
Conclusion
Through the analysis of the comedy As You Like It, a conclusion can be made that romance is a part of our life. It can make life colorful and exciting. From Act ii scene I; Act iii scene ii 2; Act iii scene ii; Act iii scene v, the whole play shows a point: man not only has the right to enjoy the beauty of the life but has the ability to make himself perfect and to pursue more wonderful life. The 19th romantics hold the same view. A high praise has been given to As You like it by most romantics and it was regarded as the declaration of romanticism. Poem Schleget has said “Nothing is wanted to call forth the poetry which has its dwelling in nature and human mind but to throw off all artificial constrain a restore both to their native liberty”.( Huang Bikang,2005,54)
Rousseau, a French philosopher, is generally regarded as the father of Romanticism. He rejects the worship of reason. He thinks for some really vital problems of life, and it is much safer to rely on feeling, to follow our innocence of primitive. He also insists that the progress of learning is destructive to human happiness preaches civilized men should “return to nature’’. Romantic literature is a revival of folk literature, a real awakening of interest in the life of the common people, a sense of universal brother and a growing sympathy for sufferings of people. As you like it it was written in the 16th century, but the romanticism in the play shows man’s inner emotion. Love not only exists between lover and relatives, but also between friends. Just as the play writes, the Rosalind and Orlando love each other so deeply and so truly that though they departed for a while, they could meet each other. As the Rosalind said, “Everyone has the right to love and been loved.” (Huang Bikang, 2005, 54)In the forest of the Arden, people are pretty and love exists here and there.
Bibliography
[ 1]Alexandre Dumas fil , Dame aux camellias. 北京: 世界图书出版公司, 2005.
[ 2] E.Fdodd, The Three Musketeers .上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2003.
[ 3] Gilson, Rex. Stepping into Shakespeare. Cambridge university press, 2000.
[ 4] Gilson, Rex. Shakespeare’language. Cambridge university press, 1997.
[ 5] John Escott ,The Man in the Iron Mask .上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2003
[ 6] Wells, Stanley. An Oxford Anthology of Sshakespeare. Oxford university press, 1987.
[ 7] 长克安.莎士比亚年谱[M].商务印书馆出版社,1988.
[ 8] 黄必康. 莎士比亚名篇赏析[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2005.
[ 9] 李桂媛.英美文学选读[M].天津:天津大学出版社, 2003.
[10] 李锦丹. 西方经典爱情诗[M].北京:北京西苑出版社, 2005.
[11] 聂军. 中外浪漫主义文学[M].西安:西安外语出版社,2006.
[12] 孙宜学.西方现代派文学[M].同济:同济大学出版社,1996.
[13] 孙宜学.外国文学专题研究[M]. 同济:同济大学出版社,1999.
[14] 孙宜学.欧洲浪漫主义文学[M].同济:同济大学出版社,2002.
[15] 吴翔林.莎士比亚戏剧故事集[M].商务印书馆,1979.
关键词 西方文学 隐喻 运用
一、隐喻的基本含义
隐喻,也叫“暗喻”,是指隐藏的比喻,隐喻一般都不明显。从结构上来说,两个概念域之间的映射就是隐喻,即原始域和目标域之间的映射,是在两个域之间潜在相似性和语义迁移的激活。从功能层面上来说,用一种事物去经历和体验另一种事物,便是隐喻的本质。隐喻所体现的是思维的问题,而不是简单的语言问题。
“隐喻是将明喻缩减到一个词的一种简化形式,这个词被投放到一个看似属于它,其实并不属于它的位置。”隐喻分广义和狭义的两种:广义的隐喻被称为基本隐喻或根本隐喻,它不仅仅只是一种简单的语言现象,更是一种复杂的思维方式,是修辞形式的广泛运用,同时也是语言的概念得以充分表达的重要条件;而狭义的隐喻是指用另一种思想内容的名称来替代原本的思想内容,而且这种做法是有意而为的。
古希腊哲学家亚里士多德对隐喻曾经这样定义,说隐喻是将某一事物的构成转移为另外一个事物的名称,这种转移的方式可以是从属到种或者是从种到属。有些学者这样解读隐喻:“隐喻充斥在人们的日常生活中,他不仅出现在人们的语言交流中,而且还蕴含在思维和行动中。”
二、隐喻的主要派别
(一)夸美纽斯提出了关于“种子”的隐喻
“种子”隐喻指的是“神圣可教性”,它在《大教学论》中首次被提出,成为其认知思维的重要基础。夸美纽斯在《大教学论》中分析了“种子”的隐喻。主要分为三个方面:首先,其指出人是一切事物中最完整、最高贵、最美好的。其次,其提出了美德、博学、笃信三者种子,在每个人的身上都存在,从而使人更加敬重上帝、领悟生活,按照道德规律而生存。
(二)洛克提出的“白板说”隐喻
洛克不同意天赋观念,其认为知识是通过后天学习所得的,而能力是上天赋予的。其将人心假定为一块没有任何标记的白板,主要靠外在力量进行塑造和雕刻。然而,后来形成的知识和理念在上面刻下了印痕,这便是所谓的“白板说”。
(三)苏格拉底提出的“产婆术”隐喻
古希腊伟大的哲学家苏格拉底认为,经验能够理清隐晦的模糊观念,对先验观念的激发具有重要的作用,从而获取绝对的新知识。其在教学过程中主要采用两种教学方法:第一步是进行一定程度上的讽刺。他和各种人进行交谈,讨论这些人关心的话题。第二步就是所谓的产婆术。这一步的主要作用是,让对方对自己原有的认识加以否决,发现自己认识的困惑,在此基础上,引导其进行正确的认识,从而更好的认知真理,以形成科学的概念。
(四)柏拉图提出的“洞穴中囚徒”的隐喻
隐喻运用中最娴熟的大师之一就是柏拉图,其部分哲学思想和认知理念都是用隐喻进行表达的。在《理想国》中柏拉图运用了“太阳喻”、“线段喻”和“洞穴喻”这三个隐喻来对理念论加以阐述。其中太阳喻停留在直接形式上,它通过语言结构解析隐含的认知结构。线段喻上升到间接形式上,它通过认知结构解析隐含的思维规则。洞穴喻则升华到到逻辑结构的高度,它呈现出一个完整形态的认识论模型。
三、西方文学中的隐喻
(一)神话中的隐喻
世界各个文明的文艺初创大多都是以神话传说为开端的。邓启耀对此论述说:“神话思维方式是一种以事物的模糊相似性为根据,在想象的幻化中将万事万物容纳进一个真空的整体系统中,从而进行整体模比的隐喻类比方法。”其中,尤以古代希腊神话传说中的《奥德塞》和《伊利亚特》这两大史诗最引人入胜,是隐喻使用中的经典运用。
(二)浪漫主义诗歌中的隐喻
隐喻的主要表现形式是想象,这集中体现在了浪漫主义诗歌中。远古神话的作者认为其描写的事情是真实发生的,而浪漫主义文学的解读者和作者明知其为假,却心甘情愿接受幻觉的欺骗,暂时放弃不信任,是一种解读策略和自觉的艺术创作手法。
四、隐喻在西方文学中的主要功能
(一)使隐喻的研究对象得以丰富
语言学是一门以认知问题作为研究对象的基础学科,而认知问题是关系到人的成长和发展的一个重要问题。人的成长和发展主要表现在两个方面:一是社会身份地位和个体外在身体的变化,二是个体内在的人生阅历的累积,以及人生价值实现的过程。表述人的成长和发展有多种方式和方法,要想从整体上分析人的变化发展,并形成文字表述,则更是难上加难。运用科学的方法目前仅能对事实做出外在观察,它不能描述一个人内在的世界,不能对内在世界进行实质性的把握。
(二)使语言学的性质更加透彻
隐喻,在很大程度上体现了以人为本的人文主义特点,突出了认知活动的内涵意义。认知隐喻的本质是一种语言现象,难免会与一定的文化背景有联系。认知学者生存在一个有意义的认知世界里,不能完全隶属于科学世界的范围。认知隐喻要求个人正确的表达理解认知理念,这体现了厚实的文化内涵及语言的生动感,同时可以弥补科学语言的不足。
(三)有利于认知理念的反思研究
隐喻集语言现象、思维方式、文化现象三者于一身,隐喻的认知价值在于体会认知活动的精神,把握认知活动的内在,理解认知活动的文化。我们探索研究隐喻的含义,不只是为了实现对认知的理解,丰富对认知的领悟,更是一种对精神世界的探索。
五、结语
通过阐述隐喻的基本含义、分析隐喻的主要派别、联系西方文学中隐喻的实例以及揭示隐喻在西方文学中的主要功能,明确了隐喻在西方文学中的重要地位,也为以后熟练的运用隐喻打下了坚实的基础,提供了良好的借鉴。
参考文献:
[1]彭懿,白解红.通感认知新论[J].外语与外语教学,2008.
关键词:艾略特 新批评 神话原型
1922年发表于英国《标准》和美国《日晷》杂志的艾略特的长诗《荒原》的确是文化界和文学界的一大事件。诗的标题以及其中所包含的对现代文明的看法似乎准确地反映出了第一次世界大战后的西方社会和文化。战争本打算拯救欧洲文明,但却成为历史上最残酷,最具毁灭性的一场灾难。是怎样的文明促使爆发了这样的战争?《荒原》破碎凌乱的结构具有如此多的诗歌技巧方面的革新,彻底地改变了人们对于什么是诗歌以及怎样创作诗歌的看法。以至于后来的诗人都无法绕过这座高山,无论是模仿还是反对,都要认真审视这首艾略特的诗歌。艾略特在大学时代就开始写一些传统的诗歌,但自从他于1908年阅读了亚瑟・西蒙的《文学中的象征派运动》之后,了解了拉福格和其他一些法国象征派诗人,改变了他对诗歌的看法。《普鲁弗洛克情歌》就创作于这一时期。此后,庞德开始热情地向文学界介绍这位年轻的美国诗人,说他“完全通过自己的训练而变得现代化”。
艾略特的评论性文章与他的诗歌同样重要。在那篇影响深远的《传统与个人才能》中,他称西方的诗歌传统是一个有机的,富于弹性的平衡体。当有新的诗人进入时,他便不停地改变。文章还称不应通过社会、历史和政治的因素来理解诗歌,而应通过其他诗人及诗歌来理解文学这一自足的世界。他的另一些文章贬低那些说教式的,解释性的,或叙述性的诗歌,如密尔顿和维多利亚时代的诗人创作的作品。而褒扬那种晦涩的,讽刺性的,简洁的和象征性的作品,如17世纪的玄学派诗人多恩和赫伯特。
在《传统与个人才能》中,艾略特关于诗歌的非个人化主张主要包括以下三方面的含义:
1.诗人与传统的关系。任何诗人都不能脱离诗的传统而单独具有它的完全意义。“他就得随时不断地放弃当前的自己,归附更有价值的东西,一个艺术家的前进是不断地牺牲自己,不断地消灭自己的个性。”要做到消灭个性这一点,艺术才可以说达到了科学的地步了。
2.诗人的创作过程具有非个性化的特点。诗人的心灵实在是一个储藏器,收藏着无数的感觉,词句,意象,搁在那儿直到能组成新化合物的各分子到齐了,心灵的催化作用则开始发生作用,于是诗便产生了。
3.诗歌表现情感具有非个人化的特点。艾略特认为诗人表现的情感并非是他个人的情感,也不是诗人在生活中某种特殊事件所激发的情感。个人情感可能是单纯的,粗疏的,甚至是枯燥乏味的,而诗中表现的情感则是极为丰富复杂。
从这一系列理论可以看出艾略特与20世纪之前大部分诗人的不同,也就不难理解遵循这一理论创作的《荒原》给西方诗坛带来的巨大震撼,使《荒原》成为了现代派诗歌的先声。《荒原》由五个不连续的片断构成(死者葬礼,对弈,火诫,水里的死亡,雷霆的话),每一个片断都包含有多个人物,多个声部,有关文学和历史的暗示,当代生活的碎片,以及众多的神话和传说。艾略特曾说:“我是凭借这些片断抵御生活的幻灭。”全诗缺少叙述性及解释性的语言,而是通过反复出现的“死亡与复活”的神话组织诗篇。在《荒原》中,艾略特几乎句句引经据典,使用了多位诗人的诗句甚至是词语,来印证诗人与传统的不可分割。如在第一节“死者的葬礼”中对于伦敦城的描写:
并无实体的城,
在冬日破晓的黄雾下,
一群人鱼贯地流过伦敦桥,人数是那么多,
我没想到死亡毁坏了这许多人。
叹息,短促而稀少,吐了出来,
认人的眼睛都盯住在自己的脚前。
关于“并无实体的城”见于法国象征派诗人波德莱尔的诗集《恶之花》中的《七个老人》:
熙熙攘攘的城市,充满了梦影
鬼魂在白天也陪伴着路人。
“我没想到死亡毁坏了这许多人”和“叹息,短促而稀少,吐了出来”均可见于但丁的《神曲》之《地狱》篇。
如此多的一长串人/我从来没有想过/死亡已经毁灭了这许多人
以及对于那些不能拥抱上帝的异教徒的描写:
在这,我能听见的/没有痛苦,只有叹息/永恒的空气都为之颤抖
对于诗歌与传统的关系,在新批评运动主将韦勒克和沃伦合著的《文学理论》中也有论及:“从个人经验到艺术完成之间有着一段距离,其中也包含着作家想象、虚构和创作的过程,更为重要的是,文学传统和惯例决定了作家创作的方式。”可以对比浪漫主义诗人华兹华斯的创作理论来理解这段话:“诗是强烈情感的自然流露,它起源于在平静中回忆起来的情感。”艾略特之不同于浪漫主义诗人可见一斑。新批评运动的支持者认为每一首诗都是一部自足的文学作品,需要对其意象、暗示、歧义等做出分析。艾略特的文学评论为他们提供了理论,而他的诗歌则提供了样本。威廉・维姆萨特与门罗・比厄兹利合写的《意图谬误》和《感受谬误》两篇论文旨在为新批评提供理论依据。传统的文学批评,无论是古典主义的“模仿说”,或是浪漫主义的“表现说”,把意图作为评价作品的标准。维姆萨特和比厄兹利则认为,“作品的真正意图是个不可靠的概念,从作者心理起因中寻找批评标准的做法是一种‘谬误’”。于是,新批评的操作原则在另一位其支持者布鲁克斯的手上化为四个要点:在处理诗的结构方面,应把握“反讽(irony)”和“诗的戏剧化结构(poem as drama)”;在处理诗的语言方面,应把握“含混(ambiguity)”和“悖论(paradox)”。
艾略特在其《玄学派诗人》中的一番话可以和新批评运动的主张互相参照:“就我们的文明的目前状况而言,诗人很可能不得不变得艰涩,我们的文明涵容着如此巨大的多样性和复杂性,而这种多样性和复杂性作用于精细的感受力,必然会产生多样而复杂的结果。诗人必然会变得越来越具有涵容性、暗示性和间接性,以便强使――如果需要可以打乱――语言以适合自己的意思。”
“四月是最残忍的一个月,荒地上/长着丁香,把回忆和欲望/掺合在一起,又让春雨/催使那些迟钝的根芽”,《荒原》的首句为人津津乐道的一个“四月”和“残忍”的联系可以说明艾略特关于诗歌语言的主张。“四月”这一在浪漫主义诗人笔下温馨的季节在艾略特笔下有了新的含义,这一催生人的欲望的季节也会带来痛苦。另举一例,第三节《火诫》中那个女打字员在经历了那毫无意义的后:
她回头在镜子里照了一下,
没大意识到她那已经走了的情人;
她的头脑让一个半成型的思想经过
“总算完了事,完了就好”
美丽的女人堕落的时候,又
在她的房里来回走,独自
她机械地用手抚平了头发,又随手
在留声机上放上一张片子。
根据艾略特原注,该段源自英国感伤主义作家哥德密斯的著作《威克菲尔德牧师传》,当奥莉维亚重返她的失声之地时唱道,
当可爱的女人堕落时/……什么能洗涮她的屈辱?/为了掩盖它/为了隐藏它/为了向爱人忏悔/拥抱他/只能死去
而女打字员所做的是“随手在留声机上放上一张片子”,两相对照,讽刺的意味立即显现。艾略特给《荒原》所写的注释很多也起到了反讽的意味。
然而,新批评运动的反对者克兰认为“‘新批评’将批评活动变成一种狭隘的实践操作,似乎只能从象征,反讽等方面去分析作品”。另一文学家奥尔森指责燕卜逊只考虑词语,文学问题被简化为“歧义问题”的讨论,而置“诗歌本质”问题不顾。芝加哥学派针对新批评的薄弱环节,提倡一种全面的批评。认为情节、人物、思想、语言应该统一起来考虑。他们采用亚里士多德的理论和方法,探讨文学作品的模仿性,形式与内容的关系,“怜悯”与“恐惧”的情感作用等一般文学理论与问题。
M.H.艾布拉姆斯在《镜与灯――浪漫主义文论及批评传统》中说,对待文学批评,“一种较为可行的办法是采用一个不把自身哲学强加于人的分析图示,在有待比较的理论中,把尽可能多的理论所共有的主要特征利用起来,然后慎重地运用这一分析图,随时准备将一切有助于眼下不同的特征收纳进来”。
基于这一见解,本文还试图通过《荒原》谈谈弗莱的神化原型说。
艾略特在《荒原》的注释中说,“不仅是题目,就连整个诗歌的计划和诗中的许多象征”都受到了魏斯登女士的著作《从仪式到神话》和弗雷泽《金枝》的影响,尤其是《金枝》第四部有关阿贴士、阿东尼士和欧西利士的有关神话。这些神已经被视为人格化的繁殖神,他们的健康,尤其是性能力的健忘就会迎来丰收,而他们受到伤害,性能力一旦遭到破坏,大地就会荒芜,河水就会枯竭。繁殖神的复活,荒原又会复生,万物重新昌盛。因此,这一带的先民举行仪式,祈祷他们的复活,以求五谷丰登,种族繁荣。
弗莱对神话原型概念给予了新的解释,使得这一概念真正进入了文学研究领域。他主张把作家的具体作品放到作家的全部作品中去。后来,又进一步主张把某些文学结构要素置于文学传统中考察。那么,是什么把诗人和传统联系起来呢?其中必有一个中介因素,这便是“原型”。在《批评的剖析中》,弗莱指出,原型就是“典型的即反复出现的”意象。在弗莱看来,神话是一种结构形式,神的诞生、历险、胜利、受难、死亡、复活是一个完整的循环故事。正如昼夜更替,四季循环一样。神的生与死,死后又复活,包含着文学的一切故事。文学总的说来是“移位”的神话。
基于这一“原型”说,弗莱把西方文学划分为五个阶段。第一个阶段被称为“神话时代”,文学紧密地依附于神话。而在近百年间,大部分的严肃创作都有趋于讽刺文学的形式,处于第五个阶段。这些文学作品的主人公在能力和智力方面低与我们,使我们感到是在居高俯视一个受奴役、受愚弄或荒诞的场面。在讽刺文学中,人失去了自我的尊严,外在环境变成了一个与人自身无法协调的荒诞世界。
从《普鲁弗洛克情歌》中的百无聊赖的“用咖啡匙量走我的生命”的年轻人到《荒原》中的女打字员,似乎正表现了这种荒诞意识,显现出类似神话那种人类无法控制和理解的世界。弗莱试图通过远离文本,来找寻文学创作中的规律,而且还把西方的文学史分为五种模式,这与上文讨论的新批评论者注重文本,形式的“近观”法不同。希望能如艾布拉姆斯所说,能从各种角度来解读《荒原》,对其有一全面的认识。
参考文献:
[1]The Norton Anthology of American LiteratureShorter Fourth Edition W. W. Norton &Company1995.